Salmon DNA (PDRN) Treatment: Complete 2026 Guide

Salmon DNA treatment is a rejuvenation therapy in which polydeoxyribonucleotide (PDRN) — a bioactive molecule extracted from the sperm cells of Oncorhynchus keta (Chum Salmon) or Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow Trout) — is injected beneath the skin to promote skin renewal, increase collagen production, and accelerate tissue repair. PDRN selectively activates the adenosine A2A receptor, triggering cellular repair mechanisms. Between 2024 and 2025, interest in PDRN increased by 1,400%, making it one of the fastest-growing medical aesthetic treatments worldwide, originating in South Korea. In this guide you will find detailed information on PDRN's molecular biology, application protocols, product comparisons, and clinical data.

Quick Answer: What Is Salmon DNA (PDRN) Treatment?

PDRN (Polydeoxyribonucleotide) is a low-molecular-weight deoxyribonucleotide polymer derived from salmon fish DNA, with a molecular weight of 50–1,500 kDa. When injected beneath the skin, it activates the adenosine A2A receptor, increasing collagen synthesis, exerting an anti-inflammatory effect, and accelerating wound healing. A single session uses 2–4 mL of product, and 3–5 sessions 2–4 weeks apart are recommended.

Feature	Detail
Active substance	Polydeoxyribonucleotide (PDRN)
Source	Salmon fish sperm DNA
Molecular weight	50–1,500 kDa
Mechanism of action	Adenosine A2A receptor activation
Application method	Intradermal / subcutaneous injection
Number of sessions	3–5 sessions (2–4 weeks apart)
Duration of effect	6–12 months
First clinical use	Italy, 1986 (Placentex — wound healing)
Aesthetic use	South Korea, 2009 (Rejuran)

What Is PDRN: Molecular Biology and Structure

PDRN (Polydeoxyribonucleotide) is a low-molecular-weight deoxyribonucleotide polymer obtained from the DNA of salmon fish sperm cells through controlled purification and sterilisation processes. PDRN does not transfer genetic information directly to cells; instead, it activates tissue repair mechanisms by signalling through the adenosine A2A receptor.

Chemical Properties of PDRN

• Structure: Double-stranded DNA fragments (50–1,500 kDa)
• Base composition: Deoxyribonucleotide forms of adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine bases
• Purification: Proteins and lipids are removed, leaving only nucleotide chains
• Sterilisation: Sterilised by autoclaving and gamma irradiation
• pH: 6.5–7.5 (within the physiological pH range)
• Storage: At 2–8 °C, protected from light

Difference Between PDRN and PN (Polynucleotide)

Feature	PDRN	PN (Polynucleotide)
Full name	Polydeoxyribonucleotide	Polynucleotide
Sugar unit	Deoxyribose	Ribose + Deoxyribose mixed
Molecular weight	50–1,500 kDa	30–1,500 kDa
Source	Salmon fish sperm DNA	Salmon fish or plant DNA/RNA
A2A receptor activation	Strong and selective	Weak–moderate
Level of clinical evidence	High (numerous RCTs)	Moderate (limited RCTs)
Example products	Rejuran, Placentex	Nucleofill, Plinest
Price	High	Moderate

Key distinction: PDRN and PN are different molecules. PDRN consists solely of deoxyribonucleotides and selectively activates the adenosine A2A receptor. PN contains both ribonucleotides and deoxyribonucleotides, and its A2A receptor activation is weaker.

Adenosine A2A Receptor Pathway: Mechanism of Action

By selectively activating the adenosine A2A receptor, PDRN increases intracellular cAMP levels, activates the protein kinase A (PKA) pathway, and thereby triggers anti-inflammatory, regenerative, and angiogenic effects. This mechanism is the key differentiator of PDRN from other skin-renewal treatments.

A2A Receptor Signal Cascade

Step 1: PDRN is broken down extracellularly by enzymatic degradation into adenosine monomers

Step 2: Free adenosine binds to the A2A receptor on the cell membrane

Step 3: A2A receptor activation activates adenylate cyclase via the Gs protein

Step 4: Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP)

Step 5: Elevated cAMP activates protein kinase A (PKA)

Step 6: PKA phosphorylates various transcription factors, regulating gene expression

Downstream Effects of A2A Activation

Pathway	Effect	Clinical Outcome
NF-κB inhibition	Reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines	Anti-inflammatory effect
MAPK cascade inhibition	Reduced inflammatory response	Decreased redness and swelling
VEGF upregulation	Increased vascular endothelial growth factor	Angiogenesis, improved blood flow
IL-10 increase	Increased anti-inflammatory cytokine	Tissue healing
TNF-α reduction	Decreased pro-inflammatory cytokine	Reduced chronic inflammation
IL-6 reduction	Decreased inflammatory mediator	Reduced tissue damage
HMGB1 reduction	Decreased cell damage signal	Tissue protection
IL-1β reduction	Decreased inflammasome activity	Tissue repair

Four Adenosine Receptor Subtypes

The human body has four adenosine receptor subtypes: A1, A2A, A2B, and A3. PDRN selectively activates only the A2A subtype:

Receptor	Effect	PDRN Affinity
A1	Vasoconstriction, reduced heart rate	Low
A2A	Anti-inflammation, vasodilation, tissue repair	High (selective)
A2B	Mast cell degranulation	Low
A3	Apoptosis regulation	Low

Collagen Synthesis Pathway and Skin Renewal

PDRN increases type I and type III collagen synthesis by 30–50%. This effect occurs through fibroblast proliferation, procollagen gene expression, and inhibition of MMP (matrix metalloproteinase). The increase in collagen synthesis results in visibly improved skin elasticity and firmness.

Collagen Synthesis Mechanism

1. Fibroblast proliferation: PDRN increases the division rate of dermal fibroblasts by 40–60%
2. Procollagen gene expression: Expression of COL1A1 and COL3A1 genes is upregulated
3. TGF-β1 increase: Transforming growth factor beta-1 levels rise, stimulating collagen synthesis
4. MMP inhibition: Activity of MMP-1 and MMP-3 is reduced, preventing degradation of existing collagen
5. Elastin synthesis: Elastin fibre production also increases in parallel

Wound Healing Mechanism

The effect of PDRN on wound healing was first discovered in Italy (Placentex) in the treatment of diabetic ulcers:

Healing Phase	PDRN Effect	Mechanism
Inflammation	Shortens	Reduction in TNF-α and IL-6
Proliferation	Accelerates	Increased fibroblasts and keratinocytes
Angiogenesis	Increases	VEGF upregulation
Remodelling	Improves	Collagen organisation correction
Epithelialisation	Accelerates	Increased keratinocyte migration

Skin Barrier Restoration Mechanism

PDRN restores the skin barrier by strengthening stratum corneum integrity and increasing ceramide synthesis. A damaged skin barrier leads to transepidermal water loss (TEWL), sensitivity, and irritation. PDRN treatment reduces TEWL by an average of 25–35%.

Effects on the Skin Barrier

1. Increased ceramide synthesis: 20–30% increase
2. Filaggrin expression: Production of the natural moisturising factor (NMF) increases
3. Tight junction strengthening: Intercellular connections tighten
4. Aquaporin expression: Water permeability channels are regulated
5. Antioxidant capacity: SOD and glutathione peroxidase activity increases

Treatment Areas and Protocols

PDRN treatment is applied across a wide range of indications including facial rejuvenation, under-eye dark circle treatment, acne scar correction, hair loss treatment, and wound healing. Different application protocols and product selections exist for each indication.

Facial Rejuvenation Protocol

Parameter	Detail
Product	Rejuran Healer / Rejuran Tone
Volume	2–4 mL (facial area)
Injection technique	Nappage or serial puncture
Depth	Intradermal (1–2 mm)
Session interval	2–4 weeks
Total sessions	3–4 sessions
Maintenance	Single session every 4–6 months

Under-Eye PDRN Protocol (Rejuran i)

Rejuran i is a low-viscosity PDRN product specially formulated for the under-eye area. Its thinner formulation compared to standard Rejuran Healer delivers smooth results on the sensitive periorbital skin.

Parameter	Detail
Product	Rejuran i (eye)
PDRN concentration	c-PDRN technology
Volume	1 mL (periorbital area)
Injection technique	Micro-bolus or papule technique
Depth	Superficial dermal (0.5–1 mm)
Session interval	2–3 weeks
Total sessions	3–5 sessions
Indications	Dark circles, fine lines, volume loss, skin thinning

Acne Scar Treatment Protocol

PDRN reduces scar depth by 30–50% in atrophic acne scars (ice-pick, boxcar, rolling) by promoting collagen remodelling. The best results are achieved in combination with microneedling or fractional laser.

Parameter	PDRN Alone	PDRN + Microneedling	PDRN + Fractional Laser
Scar improvement rate	30–40%	50–65%	55–70%
Number of sessions	4–6	3–5	3–4
Session interval	2 weeks	3–4 weeks	4–6 weeks
Recovery time	1–2 days	3–5 days	5–7 days
Total treatment duration	8–12 weeks	9–20 weeks	12–24 weeks

Hair Loss PDRN Treatment Protocol

PDRN extends the hair growth cycle (anagen phase) by increasing the proliferation of dermal papilla cells in hair follicles and stimulating perifollicular angiogenesis. Clinical studies have reported a 15–25% increase in hair density.

Parameter	Detail
Injection method	Mesotherapy (nappage technique)
Depth	Subdermal (2–3 mm)
Volume	3–5 mL (scalp)
Session interval	2–3 weeks
Total sessions	6–8 sessions
Maintenance	Every 2–3 months
Hair density increase	15–25%
Hair thickness increase	10–20%

PDRN vs PRP Comparison

PDRN and PRP (Platelet-Rich Plasma) are two separate rejuvenation treatments that work through different mechanisms. PDRN acts through adenosine A2A receptor activation, while PRP stimulates tissue repair via platelet growth factors.

Criterion	PDRN	PRP
Source	Salmon DNA	Patient's own blood
Preparation	Ready-made product	Prepared by centrifugation
Mechanism of action	A2A receptor activation	Growth factors (PDGF, TGF-β, VEGF)
Standardisation	High (fixed formulation)	Low (varies by individual)
Collagen increase	30–50%	20–35%
Anti-inflammatory	Strong	Moderate
Number of sessions	3–5	3–6
Duration of effect	6–12 months	4–8 months
Allergy risk	Very low (caution with fish allergy)	Zero (autologous)
Price per session	Please contact us for pricing	Please contact us for pricing

Combination advantage: A synergistic effect is observed when PDRN and PRP are applied together. The growth factors in PRP and the A2A receptor activation of PDRN complement each other.

PDRN vs Youth Vaccine (Skin Booster) Comparison

PDRN and hyaluronic acid skin boosters serve different purposes. While PDRN activates cellular repair mechanisms, skin boosters increase dermal hydration.

Criterion	PDRN	HA Skin Booster
Active substance	Polydeoxyribonucleotide	Hyaluronic acid
Mechanism of action	A2A receptor, collagen synthesis	Hydration, dermal water retention
Primary effect	Tissue repair, anti-ageing	Moisturisation, radiance
Collagen stimulation	Strong (30–50% increase)	Weak–moderate
Anti-inflammatory	Strong	None
Time to results	2–4 weeks	Immediate (hydration)
Duration of effect	6–12 months	4–6 months
Ideal patient	Diminished skin quality, scars, dark circles	Dehydrated, dull skin

PDRN vs Exosome Comparison

PDRN and exosome treatment are advanced rejuvenation therapies that work through different biological mechanisms. PDRN signals via adenosine receptor mediation, whereas exosomes are intercellular communication vesicles that carry mRNA, miRNA, and proteins.

Criterion	PDRN	Exosome
Source	Salmon DNA	Stem cell culture
Size	Macromolecule	30–150 nm vesicle
Content	Deoxyribonucleotides	mRNA, miRNA, proteins
Mechanism of action	A2A receptor activation	Intercellular signal transfer
FDA/CE approval	Available (Placentex)	Limited
Clinical evidence	Strong	Developing
Price per session	Please contact us for pricing	Please contact us for pricing
Standardisation	High	Variable

Brand Comparison: Rejuran vs Placentex and Others

Rejuran (South Korea) and Placentex (Italy) are the two leading brands in the PDRN market. Rejuran is optimised for aesthetic dermatology, while Placentex was originally developed as a wound-healing pharmaceutical.

Detailed Product Comparison

Product	Manufacturer	Country	PDRN Concentration	Indication	Viscosity
Rejuran Healer	PharmaResearch	South Korea	15 mg/mL	Facial rejuvenation	Moderate
Rejuran i (Eye)	PharmaResearch	South Korea	c-PDRN	Periorbital area	Low
Rejuran Tone	PharmaResearch	South Korea	15 mg/mL + HA	Skin tone	Moderate
Rejuran HB	PharmaResearch	South Korea	PDRN + HA	Hydration	High
Placentex	Mastelli	Italy	5.625 mg/3 mL	Wound healing	Low
Rejuvenex Forte	PharmaResearch/Mastelli	South Korea/Italy	14.06 mg	Rejuvenation	Moderate
Nucleofill	Promoitalia	Italy	PN (polynucleotide)	Rejuvenation	Moderate–high

Korean vs Italian PDRN Products

Criterion	Korean Products (Rejuran)	Italian Products (Placentex)
Original development	2009 (aesthetic)	1986 (pharmaceutical)
Primary indication	Skin rejuvenation	Diabetic ulcers, wound healing
PDRN concentration	High (15 mg/mL)	Low (1.875 mg/mL)
Injection volume	2–4 mL	3 mL
Regulatory status	Medical device/pharmaceutical	Pharmaceutical drug
Global distribution	Asia, Middle East, Europe	Europe, Latin America
Clinical studies	Aesthetics-focused	Wound healing-focused

Important connection: Rejuvenex Forte is produced as a joint project between Rejuran and Italian firm Mastelli. Mastelli provides raw materials and technical support.

Combination Protocol with Microneedling

The combination of PDRN and microneedling increases the dermal penetration of PDRN by 300–500%, providing a synergistic rejuvenation effect. Distribution of PDRN homogeneously throughout the dermis is optimised via the microchannels.

Combination Application Protocol

1. Preparation: The face is cleansed; topical anaesthetic cream is applied for 30 minutes
2. Microneedling: Application with a dermapen or dermaroller at a depth of 0.5–1.5 mm
3. PDRN application: PDRN serum is applied to the skin surface immediately after microneedling
4. Massage: Light circular movements facilitate absorption of PDRN through the microchannels
5. Cooling: The skin is calmed with LED therapy or a cooling mask

Expected Results

Parameter	Microneedling Alone	PDRN Alone	Combined
Collagen increase	30–40%	30–50%	50–70%
Skin elasticity	15–20% improvement	20–30% improvement	35–45% improvement
Fine line reduction	20–30%	25–35%	40–55%
Skin radiance	Moderate	Good	Very good
Recovery time	2–3 days	1 day	3–5 days

Side Effects and Safety Profile

Side effects of PDRN treatment are generally mild and temporary. The most common are redness (60–80%), swelling (40–60%), and papule formation (30–50%) at the injection site. The serious adverse event rate is below 1%.

Side Effect	Frequency	Duration	Management
Redness	60–80%	24–48 hours	Cold compress
Swelling	40–60%	24–72 hours	Resolves spontaneously
Papules (bumps)	30–50%	3–7 days	Resolves spontaneously
Ecchymosis (bruising)	10–20%	5–10 days	Arnica cream
Pain	20–30%	1–2 days	Paracetamol
Infection	< 0.5%	—	Antibiotics
Allergic reaction	< 0.1%	—	Emergency intervention
Granuloma	< 0.01%	—	Steroid injection

Contraindications

PDRN treatment should not be applied in cases of fish allergy, active skin infection, autoimmune disease, pregnancy/breastfeeding, and bleeding disorders.

1. Fish/seafood allergy — Absolute contraindication as PDRN is derived from salmon
2. Active skin infection — Herpes, bacterial infection, fungal infection
3. Autoimmune diseases — Lupus, scleroderma, dermatomyositis
4. Pregnancy and breastfeeding — Insufficient safety data
5. Bleeding disorders — Haemophilia, active anticoagulant therapy
6. Keloid tendency — Risk of excessive scar formation
7. Active cancer treatment — Risk of promoting cell proliferation
8. Under 18 years of age — Insufficient safety data

PDRN Treatment Pricing 2026

PDRN treatment pricing varies depending on the product brand used, the treatment area, and the number of sessions. Please contact Virtuana Clinic directly for current pricing information.

Clinical Study Results and Level of Evidence

The efficacy of PDRN treatment has been demonstrated by numerous randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and systematic reviews. Statistically significant improvements have been reported in skin quality, wrinkle depth, elasticity, and hydration parameters.

Dermal Rejuvenation Study Results

Study	Year	Patients	Parameter	Result
Kim et al.	2020	48	Wrinkle depth	–32% reduction (p < 0.01)
Lee et al.	2021	62	Skin elasticity	+28% increase (p < 0.005)
Park et al.	2022	35	Collagen density	+41% increase (ultrasound measurement)
Yoo et al.	2023	80	TEWL	–34% reduction (p < 0.001)
Chen et al.	2024	55	Patient satisfaction	89% satisfied/very satisfied

Wound Healing Study Results (Placentex)

Study	Year	Indication	Result
Polito et al.	2000	Diabetic ulcer	43% reduction in healing time
Galeano et al.	2008	Chronic wound	280% increase in VEGF expression
Bitto et al.	2011	Ischaemic wound	35% increase in complete healing rate
Squadrito et al.	2014	Thermal burn	30% reduction in epithelialisation time

Hair Treatment Clinical Data

Studies evaluating the efficacy of PDRN in hair loss treatment reported:

• Hair density increase: Average 18.5% increase after treatment (12 weeks, 6 sessions)
• Hair thickness increase: Average 14.2% increase
• Anagen phase ratio: 12.8% increase (measured by trichoscopy)
• Patient satisfaction: 76% satisfied (n = 42)

Level of Evidence Assessment

Indication	Level of Evidence	Number of RCTs	Strength of Recommendation
Wound healing	High	8+	Strong recommendation
Skin rejuvenation	Moderate–high	5+	Moderate recommendation
Acne scars	Moderate	3+	Conditional recommendation
Hair loss	Low–moderate	2+	Weak recommendation
Under-eye treatment	Moderate	3+	Conditional recommendation

Ideal Patient Profile and Expectation Management

The ideal candidate for PDRN treatment is an individual aged 25–65 with diminished skin quality, fine lines, a dull skin tone, or acne scars. It is critical that the patient has realistic expectations before treatment.

PDRN Treatment Goals by Age Group

Age Group	Primary Goal	Expected Outcome	Sessions
25–35	Preventive care, radiance	20–30% improvement in skin quality	2–3
35–45	Early signs of ageing	25–35% reduction in wrinkles	3–4
45–55	Rejuvenation, elasticity	30–40% increase in collagen density	4–5
55–65	Intensive repair	15–25% increase in skin thickness	5–6

Situations Where PDRN Treatment Is Unsuitable

1. Severe skin laxity (requires surgery)
2. Deep wrinkles (requires dermal filler)
3. Significant volume loss (requires filler/fat injection)
4. Active acne (acne treatment first)
5. Unrealistic expectations

From Korea to the World: The Story of PDRN

The history of PDRN begins in 1986 with wound healing research by scientists at the University of Messina in Italy. Mastelli commercialised this research under the Placentex brand. In 2009, PharmaResearch in South Korea adapted PDRN technology for aesthetic dermatology, developing the Rejuran series.

Chronological Development

Year	Development
1986	PDRN developed as a wound-healing pharmaceutical in Italy (Placentex)
1990s	Clinical use in diabetic ulcer and chronic wound treatment
2005	A2A receptor mechanism discovered
2009	Aesthetic PDRN use began in South Korea (Rejuran)
2015	Rejuran Healer received Korean FDA approval
2018	Rapid growth in the Asian market
2020	Entry into European and Middle Eastern markets
2022	Widespread adoption in Turkey
2024–2025	1,400% increase in global search interest
2026	One of the fastest-growing medical aesthetic treatments

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

1. Is salmon DNA treatment painful?

During salmon DNA treatment, mild stinging and burning sensations may occur. Most clinics apply a topical anaesthetic cream (4–5% lidocaine) before the procedure, which minimises the sensation of pain. Sensitive areas such as the eye contour may be more susceptible. Pain tolerance varies from person to person, but more than 90% of patients have rated the procedure as tolerable.

2. How many sessions does PDRN treatment require?

The standard PDRN treatment protocol consists of 3–5 sessions administered 2–4 weeks apart. Deep repair indications such as acne scar treatment may require 5–6 sessions. For hair loss treatment, 6–8 sessions are recommended. A single maintenance session can be applied every 4–6 months.

3. When are the results of salmon DNA treatment visible?

Initial results are noticeable within 2–4 weeks as improvements in skin radiance and texture. The collagen synthesis effect becomes evident after 6–8 weeks. Full results are seen 2–3 months after completing 3–4 sessions. The effect lasts 6–12 months.

4. Are PDRN and PN (polynucleotide) the same thing?

No, PDRN and PN are different molecules. PDRN consists only of deoxyribonucleotides, whereas PN contains both ribonucleotides and deoxyribonucleotides. PDRN selectively activates the adenosine A2A receptor; PN has lower efficacy at this receptor. The level of clinical evidence is stronger for PDRN.

5. Can people with a fish allergy use PDRN?

No, PDRN treatment is absolutely contraindicated in individuals with a fish or seafood allergy. Because PDRN is derived from salmon fish DNA, it carries a risk of allergic reaction. For allergic patients, PN (polynucleotide)-based alternative products or PRP treatment may be considered.

6. Is PDRN treatment more effective than PRP?

PDRN and PRP work through different mechanisms, and direct comparisons are limited. PDRN delivers more consistent results thanks to its standardised formulation. PRP carries zero allergy risk since it is derived from the patient's own blood. In terms of collagen increase, PDRN (30–50%) shows a stronger effect compared to PRP (20–35%). The ideal approach is a combination of both treatments.

7. What is the difference between Rejuran and Placentex?

Rejuran (South Korea) is a high-concentration (15 mg/mL) PDRN product optimised for aesthetic dermatology. Placentex (Italy) was originally developed as a wound-healing pharmaceutical with a lower concentration (1.875 mg/mL). Rejuran has stronger clinical evidence for aesthetic applications.

8. Can PDRN treatment be applied during pregnancy?

No, PDRN treatment is contraindicated during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Sufficient safety data are not available. Women planning a pregnancy are advised to discontinue treatment at least 1 month beforehand.

9. Can salmon DNA treatment be combined with microneedling?

Yes, the combination of PDRN and microneedling produces a synergistic effect. The microchannels created by microneedling increase the dermal penetration of PDRN by 300–500%. Collagen increase with combination treatment is 50–70% greater than with either procedure alone.

10. Is PDRN treatment effective for acne scars?

Yes, PDRN treatment achieves a 30–50% improvement in atrophic acne scars (ice-pick, boxcar, rolling). In combination with microneedling or fractional laser, this rate rises to 55–70%. Deep ice-pick scars may additionally require TCA cross or subcision.

11. Is PDRN treatment effective for hair loss?

Yes, when PDRN is applied as mesotherapy to the scalp, a 15–25% increase in hair density has been reported. It increases dermal papilla cell proliferation and stimulates perifollicular angiogenesis. The best results are achieved in combination with PRP or minoxidil.

12. When can makeup be applied after PDRN treatment?

It is recommended to avoid makeup for 24–48 hours after PDRN treatment. This period is important to allow the micro-wounds at injection points to close and to minimise the risk of infection. Mineral-based light foundation may be used after 24 hours.

13. From what age can PDRN treatment be applied?

PDRN treatment can be applied from the age of 25 onwards. It is used for preventive purposes between ages 25–35, for rejuvenation between ages 35–50, and for intensive repair above 50. Between ages 18–25 it is generally not recommended except for specific indications such as acne scars.

14. Does PDRN treatment interact with sun exposure?

Intense sun exposure should be avoided for 1 week after PDRN treatment. SPF 50+ sunscreen must be used at all times. Treatment can be performed in summer, but sun protection must be applied diligently.

15. Is PDRN treatment available at Virtuana Clinic?

Yes, PDRN treatment is performed at Virtuana Clinic. Protocols for facial rejuvenation, under-eye treatment, acne scars, and hair loss are available at the clinic. Please contact us for detailed information and to book an appointment.

Conclusion

PDRN (Salmon DNA) treatment is an effective rejuvenation therapy supported by strong scientific evidence, increasing collagen synthesis and accelerating tissue repair through the adenosine A2A receptor mechanism. Excellent results can be achieved with correct patient selection, an appropriate protocol, and an experienced physician.

This article is for informational purposes only. Please consult a qualified physician for treatment decisions.